dNTPs play a crucial role in the PCR process, especially in the amplification of DNA. However, there are some functions that they do not fulfill. Some of these are the failure of dNTPs to bind to MYH9, the effect of dNTPs on MYH9's thermostability, and their sensitivity to contaminants.
MLPA, or multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification, is a method of PCR that allows for detection of genetic variation and chromosomal aberrations. The reaction is performed by adding a mixture of gene-specific probes to denatured DNA. These probes bind to the target DNA sequence in a sample and are then ligated to form amplification products. These amplification products are typically 130-480 bp in length.
Using this technique, a large number of loci can be amplified in one PCR. Usually, the amplification product is separated by capillary electrophoresis. The relative probe signal calculated on samples within an assay run determines the copy number of a gene. If the relative probe signal is below 1, this indicates a deletion, while if it is above 1, it indicates duplication.
A typical multiplex PCR requires specific primers for each target sequence. MLPA uses a universal primer sequence that allows for simultaneous multiplex PCR amplification of all the probes.
MLPA can detect insertions and deletions, and chromosomal aberrations. In addition, it can also be used to identify SNPs. SNPs are polymorphic changes in the genome that affect a person's susceptibility to disease. Several studies have demonstrated that MLPA can be effective for SNP detection.
MLPA has also been developed to analyze methylation variation in human genomic DNA. The procedure involves enzymatic digestion of CpGs, which reveals the presence of methylation. The endonuclease HhaI is sensitive to methylated DNA. The amplification product is then separated by high-resolution capillary electrophoresis.
MLPA has several advantages over other techniques, including its simplicity and its ability to detect small changes in a genome. However, the method can be cumbersome to perform. This requires a reliable work-flow, tools for normalization, and administrative support. Depending on the number of probes and the type of amplification product, the resolution of MLPA can vary.
MLPA is a common technique for molecular diagnosis of genetic diseases, such as cancer. It is particularly useful for detecting structural chromosome aberrations. In some cases, MLPA can be combined with other molecular diagnostic techniques. The technique can also be used to detect common aneuploidies.
Despite the fact that MYH9 is involved in a variety of functions, it has been unclear how it binds to DNA. Currently, there are several approaches to study its interaction with DNA. PCR-based methods show direct binding between MYH9 and dNTPs. However, it is also possible that other proteins may have also facilitated the nuclear MYH9-DNA interaction. In this regard, we investigated the effect of dNTPs on MYH9.
The dNTPs bind to MYH9 with different efficiencies. The interaction was further investigated in the presence of different sugars. Biotinylated genomic DNA was immobilized on a nitrocellulose membrane. Incubation with a 50-mg MDA-MB-231 cell lysate containing various proteins (Figures 1-2 and 3-4, respectively) was performed at indicated temperatures. After incubation, the biotinylated DNA was pulled down with streptavidin beads. During this process, purified MYH9 was also immobilized. The protein was then subjected to western blot analysis with anti-MYH9 antibody. The resulting protein bands had strong homology to MYH9.
Using a novel RT-PCR assay, we targeted a single partner gene associated with fusions in bone and soft tissue tumors. The target locus is located on chromosome 9q22. In this locus, we found a SNP associated with papillary thyroid cancer. It encodes a forkhead box E1 (FOXE1), a protein that is known to be involved in the development of the thyroid. Interestingly, we also found that RNA knockdown of FOXE1 in primary thyroid cells interferes with the p53 pathway. In addition, we found that MYH9 was depleted in MDA-MB-231 cells. In this regard, we analyzed MYH9 expression in siRNA-transfected MDA-MB-231 cells.
MYH9 was not detected in the nucleus of MDA-MB-231 cells. However, immunofluorescence showed intense staining in the MDA-MB-231 cells during cytokinesis. This suggests that MYH9 may be derived from the perinuclear region. In addition, dNTPs bound to MYH9 were concentrated in the mitochondria.
We observed that dNTPs eluted from cytoplasmic and mitochondrial MYH9 with different efficiencies. We also found that the binding of MYH9 to dNTPs is mediated by the receptor contact residues. These residues are described in Supplemental Table 1. We used a long synthetic oligonucleotide-based PCR method to generate standard curves for each dNTP.
dNTPs play an important role in DNA synthesis. The myosin heavy chain (MYH9) component of myosin IIA selectively binds to dNTPs via a pentose sugar moiety. Although the specific mechanism of dNTP binding to MYH9 has not been fully determined, these data indicate that dNTPs compete with dRP for binding sites in MYH9.
The interaction of MYH9 with dNTPs is believed to occur through the pentose sugar domain, which is located within the MYH9 head region. However, dNTPs also bind to MYH9 along the mitochondria and perinuclear region. In these areas, they sequester Mg2+ ions. These ions may then interfere with the fidelity of DNA polymerases.
We also examined the effect of dNTPs on the thermostability of MYH9. We used the cellular thermal shift assay, a method of measuring thermal stabilization of target proteins. In this assay, we measured the thermostability of MYH9 in MDA-MB-231 cells at various temperatures. We found that dCTP and dATP increased MYH9's thermostability. dTTP was not effective in preserving MYH9 at temperatures above 55degC, but it was highly effective at lower temperatures.
MYH9 has been shown to inhibit cell proliferation and cell cycle progression in MYH9 siRNA-transfected cells. In addition, depletion of MYH9 in the cells showed an accumulation of concentrated action focal areas. Moreover, the cell-cycle analysis revealed a decreased progression to the S phase. These results suggest that MYH9 regulates the subcellular distribution of dNTPs.
dNTPs have a relatively high affinity for MYH9. The binding energy of dTTP is 7.4680 kcal/mol. This may be due to structural differences between the two dNTPs. The difference in dNTP binding affinities could be a result of the differences in the crystalline structures of the dNTPs and the MYH9.
dNTPs are believed to bind to MYH9 through the dRP head region and the pentose sugar moiety. Therefore, the effects of dCTP and dATP on MYH9's thermostability are likely to be due to the fact that these dNTPs are more stable than dTTP. These results indicate that MYH9 regulates the subcellular transport of dNTPs and may serve as a nucleotide reservoir.
dNTPs are an important component of PCR, but they can fail due to sensitivity or contamination in the PCR reaction. In order to minimize the risk of false positive and negative results, it is important to follow certain guidelines.
The first step in avoiding the risk of false positive results is to determine the dNTP concentration. A typical dNTP concentration ranges from 40 to 200 uM for each dNTP. However, the concentrations needed for a given dNTP may vary depending on the length of DNA that is being amplified.
The second step involves checking the purity of the primers. The primers should be at least 20 to 30 nucleotides in length and should contain at least one G or C at the 3' end. The primer concentration should be approximately 0.1 to 1 mM.
When the concentration of the primer is too low, the amplicon may not be able to be amplified. In addition, high levels of the dNTP or other PCR additives can interfere with the primer binding to the target.
In addition to the dNTP, it is also important to check the concentration of the Mg2+. Mg2+ is a critical co-factor for Taq polymerases and helps to stabilize dsDNA. Excessive Mg2+ concentrations result in non-specific PCR products and can reduce fidelity and PCR yield. In cases of atypically high concentrations of dNTPs, the Mg2+ concentration may need to be adjusted.
Finally, it is crucial to avoid cross-contamination. This can occur if a PCR sample is processed alongside other nucleic acid samples, such as genomic DNA. It can also occur if a previous PCR sample is contaminated with a cloned sequence.
When amplification PCR is performed, it is a good idea to use very low concentrations of primers and Taq. This will increase the fidelity of the amplification and reduce the amount of nonspecific PCR products that may be produced.
To help avoid the potential for carryover, uracil-DNA-glycosylase (UNG) enzyme is included in many commercial PCR kits. This enzyme degrades uracil-containing DNA and prevents contaminating PCR products from accumulating.
If amplification is not successful, it is important to run a negative control PCR. This will reveal any problems with the thermal cycler or with the amplification process.